Describe in detail what you need	Review for final exam in biology must include photosynthesis, cellular respiration, parts of the cell, mitosis, meiosis, cancer, genetics, gregor mendel, DNA structure and function, DNA replication , Protein synthesis, biomolecules monomers, polymers, levels of organization, properties of life, water properties, cell membrane, diffusion and osmosis, cell membrane transport, enzymes,
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Biology Final Exam Review

Table of Contents

1. Photosynthesis
2. Cellular Respiration
3. Parts of the Cell
4. Mitosis and Meiosis
5. Cancer
6. Genetics and Gregor Mendel
7. DNA Structure and Function
8. DNA Replication
9. Protein Synthesis
10. Biomolecules: Monomers and Polymers
11. Levels of Organization
12. Properties of Life
13. Water Properties
14. Cell Membrane and Transport
15. Enzymes

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. This occurs in the chloroplasts and involves two major stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle).

• Light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and capture sunlight to convert water into oxygen and ATP.
• Calvin Cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast, utilizing ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the metabolic process by which organisms convert glucose into ATP, the energy currency of cells. This process consists of three main stages:

1. Glycolysis: Occurs in the cytoplasm; glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix; processes pyruvate into carbon dioxide and transfers energy to electron carriers (NADH and FADH2).
3. Electron Transport Chain: Located in the inner mitochondrial membrane; uses electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.

Parts of the Cell

Cells are the basic units of life and have various components, including:

• Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cellular activities.
• Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, site of cellular respiration.
• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (with ribosomes) synthesizes proteins, Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.
• Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis is the process of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells. It involves:

• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and eggs) and involves two rounds of division leading to four genetically diverse cells. Key phases include:

• Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.
• Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate.

Cancer

Cancer is a result of uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. These mutations can lead to tumors, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Factors contributing to cancer can include genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices.

Genetics and Gregor Mendel

Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, conducted experiments with pea plants, identifying the fundamental laws of inheritance. His key contributions include:

• Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during gamete formation.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits can segregate independently during gamete formation.

DNA Structure and Function

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double helix made up of nucleotide monomers, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine). Its main functions are to store genetic information, replicate during cell division, and direct protein synthesis.

DNA Replication

DNA replication is the process by which a cell duplicates its DNA before cell division. Key steps include:

1. Unwinding: The double helix is unwound by helicase.
2. Base Pairing: New nucleotides are added complementary to the original strand by DNA polymerase.
3. Proofreading: Errors are corrected to ensure fidelity.

Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis involves two main processes: transcription and translation.

• Transcription: Occurs in the nucleus, where DNA is transcribed to mRNA.
• Translation: Takes place at ribosomes, where mRNA is translated into amino acids to form proteins.

Biomolecules: Monomers and Polymers

Biomolecules are essential for life and include:

• Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) are monomers; polysaccharides (e.g., starch) are polymers.
• Proteins: Amino acids are monomers; polypeptides are polymers.
• Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides are monomers; DNA and RNA are polymers.
• Lipids: Not true polymers but can consist of glycerol and fatty acids.

Levels of Organization

Biological organization is hierarchical:

1. Cellular Level: Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells functioning together.
3. Organ Level: Composed of different tissues.
4. Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together.
5. Organism Level: The complete living entity.

Properties of Life

The characteristics that define living organisms include:

• Cellular Organization
• Metabolism
• Homeostasis
• Growth and Development
• Reproduction
• Response to Stimuli
• Adaptation through Evolution

Water Properties

Water is vital for life, exhibiting properties such as:

• Cohesion and Adhesion: Allow for capillary action.
• High Specific Heat: Helps stabilize temperatures.
• Solvent Properties: Dissolves many substances.
• Density: Ice is less dense than liquid water, allowing aquatic life to survive beneath frozen surfaces.

Cell Membrane and Transport

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that controls transport into and out of the cell. Key transport mechanisms include:

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
• Osmosis: Diffusion of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane.
• Active Transport: Movement against the concentration gradient requiring energy.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. They are specific to substrates and function optimally at certain pH and temperature ranges. The active site is where substrate binding occurs, leading to the formation of products.

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This review provides a comprehensive overview of the key topics required for a final exam in biology, organized to facilitate understanding and retention of essential concepts.